Why Portugal was the First and the Last Colony Essay Example for Free

Why Portugal was the First and the Last Colony Essay Portugal is one of the many European nations that colonized different parts of the world. Its colonies spread from Asia, Africa and Latin America. Colonization has been defined as domination of a territory by a foreign power where the dominating power subjects the subordinate nation to exploitation, denial of freedom and direct ruling. Colonizing power usually impose their policies and control of most aspects of the local people. Portuguese domination of the foreign nation can be traced way back after the end of the Portuguese recapturing period in the twelfth century. During this time they started moving to the other parts of the world, this is overseas expansion. In 1415 this European power conquered port of Cueta in the Northern part of Africa. In the subsequent years Portuguese continued moving along the coasts of Africa where they established forts, seaports, and trade posts. (Cook, S 1997) There are several reasons why Portugal became the first nation to colonize, firstly the nation has been described as the one which kicked off the age of discovery ,this was way back in the 1400s. Portuguesese were the first to explore and sail through the Atlantic ocean, this enabled them to discover so many islands which they came to colonize. This discovery was propelled by the mobility of the citizens of this country. The information they gathered from these expeditions was very vital as far as conquering other parts of the world were concerned. Explorers such Vasco da Gama and Bartolomeu Dias helped in the establishment of ports and forts along the coastal regions of the areas they passed, this spread to as far as India. These explorers were later followed by armed groups who were keen on taking regions that were rich in resources. (Field house, D (1981) Enrique, D (1981) brings out another perspective that gave Portugal an upper hand as far as colonization was concerned, this nation was the first to get important concessions from the church, this concessions recognized the ownership of the Portugal over the territory which had already been discovered and those which had not been discovered. Pope also went ahead to give Portugal the exclusive rights to take over the lands in Africa. According to Sellsrtom, T (1999) Portuguese had a mentality that they were superior to other people and they had the right to live in the tropics and help in the assimilation of people from the entire racial group and make them one big nation. As a nation they clinged to the view of magnificent future through the guidance of an aura of dominance. This partly explains why this nation was clinging to their colonies. They vehemently opposed the United Nations decolonization declaration which was passed in the early 1960s terming the idea as intelligible and can not be applicable to Portugal as a nation. Portugeese dictator Antonio Salazar was firmly opposed to this idea, he moved ahead and changed the constitution to incorporate the colonies as overseas provinces or states. These overseas provinces were taken as part of Portugal process of assimilation; they were part and parcel of this nation. She wanted them to be recognized as part of her, this was strongly opposed by other nations as it was going against the declaration of decolonization. (McQueen 1997) (United Nation 1970) Portugal only came to grant independence to the country it was dominating after much pressure from the international community. Some of the last colonies in Africa Mozambique and Angola later came to be engulfed by the war which can be partly being blamed on this extended domination. Being the first nation to colonize and the last to grant independence places this European country at a unique position as far as colonial history is concerned.

Peer Group Relationships in Age Groups

Peer Group Relationships in Age Groups In the media, peer groups are made out to be the bad kids around the back gates at school they are publicised as those who make teenagers take up smoking, drugs and underage drinking but is this reality or the media hand picking out the sections to make a story? During this dissertation, I will look at what age peer groups are most influential; when are they a negative influence and at what age people most depend on their peer group. I chose this topic as it is an area of interest and relates to my psychology studies, I want to pursue this further at university and it will give me a deeper understanding in psychology and my prior knowledge will give me an advantage. This topic covers both psychology and sociology which will give me an insight to a new area as well as Furthering Pre-Knowledge. I will use many different resources during this essay including the internet, books, journals and e-resources; I will keep a bibliography of all references as well as in text citations. So, what defines a peer group? Collins English Dictionary puts it nicely as a social group composed of individuals of approximately the same age, whereas The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy adds a little extra by explaining it is a group of people who share certain social characteristics, such as age, class, occupation, or education, and interact on a level of equality. An individual may be a member of several peer groups, including friends, schoolmates, and co-workers. By looking into the effects of peer groups and their importance on different ages, I will be able to see whether all they are important for is making teenagers go down the wrong road, or whether their uses start at a much earlier age and are crucial to our development, new views show that a childs early relationships have a large effect on later growth and development. During this dissertation I will look at both sides to determine the age when peer groups are at their most influential and fundamental toward people focussing on the differences between peer groups in young children and those in adolescence. Peer Age Relationships Some believe that peer groups are a great participating factor in building our cognitive development; others think it lures teenagers into a detrimental environment. Edwards (1992) said, the increasing use of preschools, organized playgroups, and child care arrangements has brought the age of access to peer relations down near the beginning of life (p.197) whereas Erwin (1998) said, childrens earliest relationships are normally with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, and the rest of the immediate family. Edwards believes that peer groups are fundamental from the very early stage of pre-school to gain the ability to succeed in life, whereas Erwin believes young peer relationships are only with immediate family and do not strengthen until adolescence. How are peer groups defined in both young childhood and adolescence? By establishing this, I can look deeper into the two age categories and delve into how peer groups affect children in these groups and the use of their peer gr oup. Young Children Some theorists, such as Bowlby, Freud and Rutter suggest that early childhood is a sensitive period in life for social development; they also believe that certain types of peer experiences during this period can have an impact on the childrens later behaviour. Theorists such as Berndt, Hoyle and Bulowski theorize that one of the most influential factors that could have an effect on the stability of friendships is the initial quality of the friendship. Accordingly, friendships that have a positive, solid foundation will be more likely to withstand the test of time compared to friendships based on more negative attributes (e.g. mutual aggression, control) (Human behaviour, 2011). Young Children Infants People usually think that infants are not old enough to understand peers and they show no preference to people, many parents believe this is their only chance to hand pick their childs friends, but typically, infants orient toward peers by 2 months of age, make simple gestures by 3 to 4 months, and direct smiles and vocalizations to peers by 6 months, meaning that infants are aware of their peers and can distinguish and make decision, they are just more subtle at this age (Vincze, 1971). Among infants and toddlers, friendship has often been defined in terms of peer familiarity, consistency of interactions between the partners, and/or the mutual display of positive affect, sharing, and plays. For example, in research conducted by Howes (1983), dyads were considering friends if: at least 50% of their social initiations resulted in social interaction (mutual preference) one or more exchanges of positive affect occurred between partners (mutual enjoyment) One or more episodes of reciprocal or complementary play occurred between partners Howes found that 60% of toddler friends sustained their relationship over a period of months, and in 1992, Howes reported that toddlers friendships (particularly cross-gender friendships) often lasted well into the pre-school years. As said earlier, Erwin (1998) disagrees with this research and believes childrens earliest relationships are normally with the primary caregiver usually the mother and the rest of the immediate family. During the first two years of life, infants do not spontaneously seek out other children for interaction or for pleasure, even though six month old infants may look at and vocalize to other infants, they do not initiate reciprocal social play with each other (Human behaviour, 2011). Ross (1990) has shown that toddlers peer relationships are unique, in the sense that both partners tend to adjust their interactions they conduct with each other, and interact in ways that are different from the ways they treat other children (Young childrens peer relations and social competence, handbook of research on the education of young children, 2006). Young Children Pre School Years Vandell Mueller (1980) think that by as early as 2 years old, children prefer certain peers over others as play partners. Between two and five years of age, childrens interactions with each other become more sustained, social and complex. Solitary play is dominant among three year olds, but this strategy shifts to group play by five years (Human behaviour, 2011). It has been theorized by Howes (1992) that at this age, children have a level of emotional maturity to a degree that enables them to form close ties with their peers. Because pre-schoolers are better able to conceptualize, reflect on, and describe their friendships when they are at this age when compared to infants and toddlers, researchers have been able to use childrens self-reports to assess friendships (Price Ladd, 1986), although other theorists would argue that although they have a better understanding of their friendships, they still havent reached a full awareness of their peers and therefore you cannot rely on sel f-reports from 2 year olds, although, by the second and third years, toddlers begin to engage in more sophisticated forms of games and repricol play which shows that they are gaining peer awareness. The significance of peer relationships increase and change with age, peer relationships become increasingly stable, intimate and personally significant by 3 years, children usually have 22 contacts and Erwin (1998) believes children start to use the term best friend from the age of 4 and Hayes (1978) also found that preschool children could not only name their best friends they could also articulate reasons for liking them. Adolescence Adolescence is generally the term used for teenagers, the time when children are going through the most changes including puberty. It can be broken up into three sub categories, early (11-13 years); middle (14-18 years); and Late adolescence (19-24 years). The adolescent years have traditionally been treated (and still are by many authors) as an area of interest distinct from the rest of childhood (Erwin 1998). The sociology of adolescence has been dominated by a social problems approach that is, basic research has centred on those phenomena which appear to characterize adolescence as a period of individual crises (Credo reference, 26th Feb 2011). Relationships during this era have often been examined as entities separate from and largely discontinuous with those that went before, despite the glaring obvious proposition that the groundwork for transition in adolescence must have been laid in childhood (Coleman, 1995). During adolescence, peer relationships become more important and influential than parent relations. Early Adolescence Social relations are organized around the peer group rather than families or individual friends. (Credo reference, 22nd Feb 2011). The rapid growth of the teenage population as experienced in the 1990s has led to a rise in adolescent peer groups simply because the sheer increase in the number of peers that young people have has increased. (Steinberg, 1996). As the importance of the family in the adolescents life declines, whether it is from a divorce or from normal growth, friends move to the forefront. Friends are usually peers, that is, people of the same age, with similar backgrounds and interests. Peer group membership answers adolescents concerns about many things including their changing bodies. Discussing their fears with other young people experiencing similar physical changes and asking similar questions about their impact helps adolescents to accept their physical development. In several ways, the group reassures the individuals that they are acceptable and not abnormal. Pe er groups can help adolescents accept their physical development by devising means to hide it. Body differences appear less different when people dress alike. Each group has its own look, from sophisticated dressy, to designer labels, to ratty jeans and T-shirts, to whatever is handy. Each group presents an identifiable image through a style of dressing that clearly states what is acceptable. (Kaplan, 1993). Acknowledging that by early adolescence, peer groups have a significant influence on childrens behaviour Middle Adolescence Peer pressure is heightened during this stage and is mainly seen as a negative influence that provokes behaviour such as underage drinking and sex. Some researchers believe the children in this stage which are part of the in crowd are more susceptible to peer pressure than those who friends with peers who are kind, nice and well-liked (Science daily, 23rd Feb 2011). In a contemporary society, peer groups have become an increasingly important context in which adolescents spend time. Modernization has led to more and more age segregation-in schools, in the workplace, and in the community. Todays teenagers spend far more time in the exclusive company of their peers than their counterparts did in the past (Steinberg, 1996). Becoming a peer group member meets many adolescent concerns about social expectations as well. Late Adolescence Many teens try to balance school work with part-time jobs, dating and other activities. Todays teens also deal with an uncertain national economy, violence, AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases. With all this, teens lack the experience and the coping and problem-solving skills that would help them make good decisions about handling these stresses. Without such skills and given the almost complete absence of their families support, teens are at the mercy of their friends immature ideas about how to solve problems (Kaplan, 1993). Young people need to develop independence from their parents. They need to learn decision-making skills, to act on their own and learn to live with the consequences. But young teenagers find these goals confusing and the ways of achieving them even more so. They feel dependent on their parents because they privately know that they lack the confidence and the skills to succeed in the outside world alone. Adolescents, however, deeply resent this need an d view it as a sign of weakness, often covering up with arguments and impulsive behaviour (Kaplan 1993). Development Young Children Peer groups can have an effect on a young childs sense of well-being and belonging which are increasingly important concerns as education and child care settings have become a significant role in childrens daily lives throughout the world. Child rearing is acknowledged as a collaborative endeavour between families and early childhood education and care institutions (OECD 2006). Peer relations are high priority because of the fun and pleasure a child will get from being in the company of other children, which is most evident in play. Non-parental early childhood arrangements have proliferated because parents need to be employed and cannot simultaneously care for their children. Although, throughout the 21st century, these arrangements of early childhood care are seen as a means of enrichment for the child to help establish their developmental needs by meeting new people and other children to gain dependence from their parents and that is where peer groups start to enhance a child from one of the earliest stages in our lives. These adaptations have created the need for early years practitioners to think and act in new ways to help establish this development. Positive attachment relationships with caregivers influence childrens formation of positive relationships with peers and children who are in less conflict with peers are more likely to form positive relationships with caregivers (Howes, 2008). Interactions with peers (meaning other children) develop through multiple and recursive interactive experiences which are well scripted social exchanges that are repeated many times with only slight variation (Bretherton, 1985). From this, the child forms an internal representation of a relationship with a playmate, and from those playmate relationships friendships could evolve children who engage in repeated and complex interactions with a given playmate are more likely to represent the partner as a friend and the content of these interactions will influence the quality of the resulting friendship (Kernan, 2010). Factors affecting peer development A childs participation in peer activities and their social ability relies on a number of contributing factors which can either have a positive effect on their ability to create new peers. Relationships with caregivers As mentioned earlier, children who have strong attachments to their primary caregiver are concurrently and longitudinally more socially competent with peers even when controlling for parental attachment quality (Howes 1999; Pianta et al 2002). We sometimes incorrectly assume this is because sociable children from good relationships with all people, peers and caregivers. However, in order to master peer relationships the child needs to be able to explore and experiment with peers whilst making forays back to a trusted adult, if a child feels valued and supported they are more likely to make these steps and form stronger relationships, but those children who dont form a relationship with their caregiver are more susceptible to pick fights, refuse to let somebody play or hide from a bully as they dont believe they have the support of the adult (Kernan, 2010). In the introduction, it was mentioned that the first peer relationship a child makes is with their primary caregiver, whether thi s is with their mother, father, or teacher it is essential that children create the strongest bond possible with this figure in order to have the confidence to establish new bonds with other people including other adults and children their own age. When children are new to peer groups they dont know the games or the players which puts them at a risk of exclusion or withdrawing from already formed groups, this makes them miss the opportunity to play with others and develop new social interaction skills with other peers. This makes the time when a child enters a new environment such as a classroom an important setting for the development of peer relations. Setting A childs setting is a main contribution to their social development, for example, imagine a classroom setting in which most of the interactions were harmonious and respectful, in which children and adults worked together on projects, in which a child who was distressed or frustrated was comforted and helped, and in which laughter and other expressions of positive affect predominated. Contrast this with a classroom setting in which children were ridiculed for being different, talked to and touched in a harsh rejecting manner, competed rather than helped each other, and the general tone included mistrust and anger. We can imagine that the social development of children would take two different paths in these two extremes. Because encounters with peers become experiences of living within a group for the child, it is impossible to understand the social development of a child as isolated from the group (Kernan, 2010). Time and permission The main place where child to child relations are made are during play, which means the caregiver must create an environment that values play so they can have the physical space, materials and encouragement to pretend and play together. If a child is playing with another child and this is interrupted and they are separated, it may result in the children thinking it wasnt allowed, so it is essential that this importance doesnt fade into the background. Howes and Wishard (2004) say that the amount of time children engage in complex pretend play has decreased over the 20 years they have been observing in local programmes. This decrease is consistent with anecdotal reports that programmes are providing relatively little unstructured time for children to play. Without the time and permission to have play with other children, this could have a negative effect on a childs social and peer building skills. Strategies focussed on peer building The Government published its first national play strategy, earmarking  £235 million to: Make sure that every residential area has a variety of high-quality places for all children to play safely and free of charge à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ as a direct response to demands from children, young people and their families for better play facilities. (Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2008) This strategy will help to raise awareness for the profile of plays importance in childrens development, and people from all background have access to this funding. Although, despite the 2004 Children Acts statutory duty for government bodies to take into account the views of children when planning services, there is little evidence of this in this play strategy. 9 000 children were involved in the consultation of the strategy, but this was done online and the ages of the children were not given, and it is highly unlikely that the younger children who will be most affected by the scheme would have been part of this consultation. There were 42 800 respondents aged 19 and under that gave their opinions about services in the areas in which they lived, although this may be applauded, the views of the local population of more than 130 000 children from birth to seven years making up 39 per cent of those 19 and under were not surveyed. The BIG lottery fund is a grant making non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom created by the Government to administer funding to suitable causes following the creation of the National Lottery. This organisation decided to give  £155 million to Childrens Play initiative which was based on the recommendations of the 2004 play review Getting Serious About Play which defined play as what children and young people do when they follow their own ideas, in their own way and for their own reasons the report also mentioned how play was a key factor in development for a childs social wellbeing and their ability to form peers both early and late in life (2004). When the programme finished, 90% of Local Authorities reported that the programme had raised the profile of play, 48%of portfolios said BIG funding had helped them to secure extra funds and unexpected outcomes achieved included enhanced parental engagement, increased social and community cohesion (BIG lottery fund, 2006) There are also courses available for those to study child development and play to help enhance the social skills of children and so those primary caregivers like nursery nurses will now have a bigger insight into exactly what a child needs and how to achieve that to help them gain the skills needed to have the confidence to build more relationships when they advance to the older stages and have to gain ore peer relationships. Northumbria University currently have 12 courses available for early years, these include early years and disability studies to learning in families, schools and beyond. Most of these courses contain topics related to play and child development. The development of courses and funding which is now available shows how early childhood has become more recognisable as a major stepping stone in the formation of peer groups and their ability to give us fundamental skills we will recall on later in life. Peer Pressure Adolescence Most commonly, peer pressure is seen as the time in our lives when peers have the most influence over us Google will bring up over 3 million results for the search peer pressure. There are links including ways to deal with peer pressure, definitions and past newspaper articles that are related to peer pressure. 9 out of 10 teenagers will give in to peer pressure whether it is simply wearing similar clothes or under age alcohol and sex. Peer pressure can have a devastating effect on those in adolescence but it also beneficial by getting a teenager to do something they want to, but just dont have the courage or confidence for. Positive effects of peer pressure Friendship Amongst peers, teenagers will find friendships and acceptance and share experiences with these other teenagers that will build lasting bonds. Adolescence is a tough time of a persons life, you go through puberty start new schools and have exams and have to make some life changing decisions, having friends around you whilst going through this stage can have a positive effect on you. Studies such as the Effects of Friendship on Adolescents Self-Esteem by Thomas J Berndt and Keunho Keefe show that friends can build self esteem and bring out the confidence in people. When in a strange environment, it has been proven that when accompanied by a friend, your heart rate lowers. Positive Examples Peers can set good examples for each others. Having peers who are committed to doing well in school or to doing their best in a sport can influence a person to also be more goal-oriented. The same applies for peers who are kind and loyal which can influence them to build these qualities in themselves. Peers do not have to be somebody you know, for example watching Tom Daley diving at the Olympics could encourage another person to aspire to be like Tom. A teenager is more likely to copy somebody their own age than somebody older, so having a positive role model from the same age group (e.g. Taylor Swift for singing) is a type of peer pressure than can have a positive effect on somebody. Feedback and advice Adolescents are going to listen their peers, who can give them advice and feedback on trying new ideas explore beliefs and discus problems. They can help them to make decisions such as what courses to take, what haircut to get and issues such as how to deal with family arguments. This advice could help a teen through a rough patch and help them make life changing decisions for the better. It can encourage them to try new things, for example joining the school gym or art club. Socializing Peer groups give opportunities to people to try out new social skills, allows people to get involved with others friends of friends so to speak and gives them a chance to expand their circle of friends. Peers can help each other to build relationships or to work out issues. Encouragement Peers can encourage other peers to work hard to hit specific targets, such as getting a solo in the school concert or they can encourage you to study and aim high for your exams as well as listen and support them when they are upset or troubled and they can empathize with each other when they have experienced similar difficult situations. New experiences Some teens could be involved in clubs, sports or religious groups and they could help other teens to get involved in these too, helping them to gain new experiences, new likes and dislikes. Negative effects of peer pressure Although there are positive effects to having peers in adolescence, there are also negatives and a lot of stresses which can come from peers during this age. They can pressure people into doing something they are uncomfortable with such as shoplifting or doing drugs. These pressures can be expressed openly for example have a drink, its only one drink, everybody else is doing it or it could be more indirectly by simply providing alcohol at a party. But most peer pressure is much more subtle, without talking, a peer could let somebody know how they must dress, talk or the attitudes they should have towards school, parents and teachers in order to win their approval. This pressure to conform can be much more powerful than the more direct pressure; they dont want to look awkward or uncomfortable, so when unsure of what to do in a situation, they naturally look to others for cues about what is and what isnt acceptable. Drugs Peer influences have been found to be amongst the strongest predictors of drug use during adolescence. It has been argued that peers initiate drug use by providing, modelling and shaping attitudes to drugs. There was a study done by Farrell and White to determine how much peer pressure affected adolescent drug use, they included factors such as family are you more likely to conform with drug users if you were from a single parent family, no father or lived with a step parent. The results showed that although those who were living without a father figure were more likely to participate in drug use, it could not outweigh the strong relations between peer variables and the frequency of drug use found within the study, which replicates the findings of previous studies that have also found peer variables to be amongst the strongest predictors of adolescents drug use. Although, drugs are not just marijuana or heroin and other types of really bad illegal substances, drugs also include alco hol and cigarettes. Underage drinking is one of the leading causes of teenage death it makes you think irrationally, drink and drive or even binge drink until you are unconscious; all of these effects of alcohol usage increase the chances of ending up in hospital or six feet under. Although, peer pressure is not the only factor leading to underage drinking, there are other influences such as relationships with parents, parental or sibling drinking and the media. Underage smoking is a common peer pressure problem; someone who starts smoking at the age of 15 is three times more likely to die due to cancer than someone who started in their late twenties. According to a two year study by Carlos Bolanos, teenage smoking can lead to depression in adulthood. Teenagers are 80% more likely to try smoking underage if their friends and family also smoke; this is an immense amount of peer pressure to put onto an adolescent. Sex Many teens particular males feel the pressure to have sex before they are ready. According to research 63% of teens believe that waiting is a good idea, but few of those actually do wait. 1 in 3 boys aged 15-17 feel the pressure to have sex, often from their male friends, whereas only 23% of females within the same age range say that they feel the same pressure. This factor is what is making schools rethink about the delivery of sex education, and the need to introduce sex education at a much younger age. Although, there are other contributing factors such sexually transmitted diseases and the rise in teenage pregnancy, reports in 2003 showed that 1 in 7 sexually active 14 year olds have been pregnant, the report did not say whether they had continued with the pregnancy. (Colin, 2003) Conclusion

Evolving Federalism Essay -- essays research papers

Evolving Federalism Pre-Class Assignment   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Federalism by definition is the division of power between a central government and its participating members. How that power is divided is the subjective aspect of federalism that was before the framers of the United States. Through compromise and necessity the seeds for a strong central government were planted alongside already strong state governments. Over time the seeds for strong central government grew; wars, economic fluctuations and national growth established a strong central government. As America’s idea of federalism changed the central government grew more powerful, the state’s government gave more power away, and local governments were established. In American Intergovernmental Relations, Laurence O’Toole cites Harry Scheiber five stages of federalism to identify three key terms of federalism in the U.S as â€Å"dual federalism,† â€Å"cooperative federalism,† and â€Å"creative federalism.† According to Schei ber the five stages of federalism, are still a valid history of federalism in the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first stage, 1789-1861, he calls the â€Å"era of dual federalism† in which national, state, and local governments operated independently of one another. This â€Å"layer-cake† stage was a product of Congress, â€Å"refraining from making innovative policy in many areas formally opened to it by the Court.† It was apparent during this time that Congress was not yet ready to move to a more centralized government that would interfere with state and local governments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Scheiber identifies the second stage, 1861-1890, as a period of transition to a more centralized government. Change to the Constitution, expansion of federal court powers, business regulation, and Supreme Court activism all worked to increase the power of national government and move towards a more centralized view of federalism. Schreiber’s third stage from 1890 to 1933 continues this move towards centralization with World War I as a catalyst.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal â€Å"inaugurated† Scheiber’s fourth stage. â€Å"Cooperative federalism† surfaces in this stage that promoted interaction and funding between the state, local, and national governments in order to facilitate new programs under the New Deal. Although this stage, labeled the marbl... ...very well improve the education system in states such as Arizona, where charter schools are becoming popular but still lack quality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Education is a strong example of competitive and cooperative federalism. Most schools receive federal grants to ensure certain programs are instituted in public schools. States provide the majority of funding to local school districts and mandate the majority of the curriculum. Local governments allocate the funds from the state to accomplish the curriculum goals as they see fit. Yet all three of these governments compete for control over how their children get educated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Education is a prime example of shifting power in the U.S. Landmark Supreme Court cases such as Brown v. Board of Education has forced integration upon the states. Recently, the issue of the word â€Å"God† in the pledge of allegiance has surfaced in the education field and may be decided in federal courts. Bush has made it clear that he favors education reform at the federal level. Whatever the outcome, one of the three levels of government will seize more power from the education issue in this era of competitive federalism.

Romeo And Juliet 4 :: essays research papers

The Nurse and Friar Laurence are kind but powerless characters who inadvertently contribute to the tragic ends of Romeo and Juliet. The Nurse is ignorant and unthinking as she enjoys and sets up the secret marriage, but she does not think about the consequences or take responsibility for them. The Nurse helps Juliet to marry Romeo when the Nurse knows it is forbidden. The Friar is wise and insightful when he marries Romeo and Juliet, but he simply does not have the power or the foresight to stop the tragic events that come after the marriage. Friar Laurence agrees to marry Romeo and Juliet, even though it is risky. These two characters share good intentions and love for Romeo and Juliet, and share the responsibility for their deaths. The Nurse helps Juliet to marry Romeo because she is just thinking about Juliet’s feelings without thinking about the problems this marriage could cause. In Act I, Scene. v., lines 137-138, she tells Juliet who Romeo is. It causes Juliet to get very upset: “My only love, sprung from my only hate.'; (I.V.139), but the Nurse doesn’t think about this. She doesn’t see the trouble that has started. After the nurse realizes that Juliet and Romeo love each other, she doesn’t stop it; instead, she agrees to carry the message to Romeo, although she knows Romeo is a Montague. After the Nurse has a secret meeting with Romeo, she teases Juliet and praises Romeo as a handsome and nice young man. She does not explain to Juliet the problems of loving Romeo. She helps and encourages Juliet to get to Friar Laurence’s cell to get married. The Nurse doesn’t consider the dangerous result of this action. She only thinks of the moment. After the marriage, the Nurse quickly abandons Juliet. The Nurse refuses to help Juliet any more after Romeo kills Tybalt. Even though the Nurse supported the marriage before, she does little to stop the forced marriage of Juliet to Paris. She does not understand Juliet’s emotional love for Romeo because the Nurse only thinks love is physical. She suggests to Juliet that Paris is as good as Romeo, and Juliet might as well take Paris because no one will know: “I think you are as happy in this second match,/ For it excels your first: or if it did not,/ Your first is dead; or ‘twere as good he were'; (III.

Math Coursework - The Fencing Problem :: Math Coursework Mathematics

The Fencing Problem A farmer has 1000m of fencing and wants to fence off a plot of level land. She is not concerned about the shape of plot, but it must have a perimeter of 1000m. So it could be: [IMAGE] Or anything else with a perimeter (or circumference) of 1000m. She wishes to fence of the plot of land with the polygon with the biggest area. To find this I will find whether irregular shapes are larger than regular ones or visa versa. To do this I will find the area of irregular triangles and a regular triangle, irregular quadrilaterals and a regular square, this will prove whether irregular polygons are larger that regular polygons. Area of an isosceles irregular triangle: ======================================== (Note: I found there is not a right angle triangle with the perimeter of exactly 1000m, the closest I got to it is on the results table below.) To find the area of an isosceles triangle I will need to use the formula 1/2base*height. But I will first need to find the height. To do this I will use Pythagoras theorem which is a2 + b2 = h2. [IMAGE] [IMAGE] First I will half the triangle so I get a right angle triangle with the base as 100m and the hypotenuse as 400m. Now I will find the height: a2 + b2= h2 a2 + 1002 = 4002 a2 = 4002 - 1002 a2 = 160000 - 10000 a2 = 150000 a = 387.298m Now I will find the area: 100*387.298 = 3872.983m2 My table shows the areas of other irregular triangles, but to prove that regular shapes have a larger area I will show the area of a regular triangle: Area of a regular triangle: Tan30= 166.6666667/x X= 166.666667/Tan30 X= 288.675m 288.675*166.6666667 = 48112.5224m2 This shows clearly that the regular triangle's area is larger than the

Managing challenges for the 21st century

â€Å"Drucker's ideas continue to display a force and resonance that leave him pretty much in a class by himself. It is impossible to read the man without learning a lot.† —Fortune Magazine Advent of globalization has reformatted the business principles and this book is a perfect guide to show the way to conquer new world which is more dynamic, confident and aggressive. Before Peter Drucker, most people thought about their businesses with a manufacturing mindset, defining a business based on what it produced. Today, the marketing mindset prevails. It was Drucker's critical insight that instead of buying a â€Å"product† the customer buys the satisfaction of a need. Drucker has reinvented the management principles to make them fit into the present world and can be proved more suitable in the current management framework. Drucker identifies new assumptions for the social discipline of management.  He has claimed that Management is NOT only for profit-making businesses but Management is the specific and distinguishing organ of any and all organizations. This revolutionary concept can bow the seed of future methods of business and can turn around the whole institutive scenario to create a completely different set of business leaders. Gone are the days when companies were making big profits and hence were focusing the management principles only towards profit earnings. Today’s world is flat and the competitions are monopolistic, in fact tends to perfect competition. In this scenario adhering to old management principles are like suicide. Second assumption is that never think that there is only one right organization which is again very relevant in present context. He has made a significant point over management of people. In Drucker’s view, One does not â€Å"manage† people. The task is to lead people. And the goal is to make productive the specific strengths and knowledge of each individual. Next assumption he made is that technologies and End-Users are NOT fixed and given. Increasingly, neither technology nor end-use is a foundation of management policy. They are limitations. The foundations have to be customer values and customer decisions on the distribution of their disposable income. It is with those that management policy and management strategy increasingly will have to start. Drucker’s book critically emphasizes the role of customer in today’s market scenario. He focuses on the point that now customer are the central point and business has to start and end at customer. Three things are important to run an effective business set up in present marketplace and that is customer, customer and only customer. Business has to be woven around the needs of the customer and ultimate goal should be customer satisfaction. He has quoted next assumption saying that Management's scope is NOT only legally defined. The new assumption on which management, both as a discipline and as a practice, will increasingly have to base itself is that the scope of management is not legal. It has to be operational. It has to embrace the entire process. It has to be focused on results and performance across the entire economic chain. He also said that Management's scope is NOT only politically defined. National boundaries are important primarily as restraints. The practice of management  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ and by no means for business only  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ will increasingly have to be defined operationally rather than politically. This assumption has to be adopted by new world immediately in light of the â€Å"open world concept† and â€Å"world is flat† concept. Seventh assumption he made on the organizational atmosphere. He explained that the Inside is NOT the only Management domain. The results of any institution exist ONLY on the outside. Management exits for the sake of the institution's results. It has to start with the intended results and organize the resources of the institution to attain these results. It is the organ that renders the institution, whether business, church, university, hospital or a battered woman's shelter, capable of producing results outside of itself. Lastly he declared the most important assumption that Management’s concern and management's responsibility are everything that affects the performance of the institution and its results – whether inside or outside, whether under the institution's control or totally beyond it. This way he brought the managerial concept at the core of all the issues whether be political or economical or anything. His point of opinion is that the new world will be a economic world where money will be the most important thing and managerial discipline are the most efficient organ of the nation which can help keeping the country self sufficient and create bonhomie everywhere. Therefore Drucker explains in a instructive tone that managers has to be responsible and they have to start thinking out of the box to consistently keep taking the extra steps in right direction. In the course of the discussions, Drucker also addresses the ultimate challenge of managing oneself while still meeting the demands on the individual during a longer working life and in an ever-changing workplace. He has always understood that people are deeply-and rightly-resistant to being â€Å"managed.† This point is especially relevant for knowledge workers, who know more about their jobs than their bosses do. For them, supervision is a special kind of hell. This is why good managers help people manage themselves by focusing consistently on performance and results and by teaching them, often by example, to think about what they are good at, how they learn, what they value. Such self-knowledge is essential to performance. Drucker has also introduced the effect of being a change leader. In the course of discussion he gives four requirements for change leadership:- 1. Polices to make the future. 2. Systematic methods to look for and to anticipate change. 3. The right way to introduce change, both within and outside the organization. 4. Policies to balance change and continuity. In chapter-4, Drucker has navigated through the concept of information technology. Information is no doubt the most important tool to create a successful business setups. Drucker describes the new information revolution that is gaining momentum as follows. So far, for fifty years, Information Technology has centered on DATA -their collection, storage, transmission, presentation. It has focused on the ‘T' in ‘IT'. The new information revolutions focus on the ‘I'. They ask, ‘what is the MEANING of information and its PURPOSE?' And this is leading rapidly to redefining the tasks to be done with the help of information and, with it, to redefining the institutions that do these tasks.† As long as the world continues to become more complex and specialized, information management is essentially a critical part of all businesses and act as blood and vein for industry. The last chapter of the book, managing oneself, is completely devoted to the individual. Drucker advises persons to work on their strengths in order to maximize performance. Conclusion: This book is highly recommended for tyros and young turks. This book is envisaging enough eye opener facts, which can help company grow to the maximum level by reinventing and managing the organizational principles and the level of knowledge workers who will face new challenges in the 21st century. Incisive, challenging, and mind-stretching, Drucker's new book is forward-looking and forward thinking. It combines the broad knowledge, wide practical experience, profound insight, sharp analysis, and enlightened common sense that are the essence of Drucker's writings, which are continuing international bestsellers and â€Å"landmarks of the managerial profession† (Harvard Business Review).            

Preliminary Ruling under Article Essay

Question 1. EC legislation and the national legislation of the Member States were integrated by the European Community Treaties. As such the national courts act in accordance with Community law and refer cases to the European Court of Justice. National judges play a key role in implementing Community law in their Member States. The preliminary reference system thus enables the national courts to comply with Community law and maintain cooperation with the European Court of Justice. Under this system the national courts refer cases for a preliminary ruling to the ECJ, in accordance with the provisions of Article 234 EC . Article 234 EC contains the jurisdictional requirements for a preliminary reference. First, the referring institution has to be a court or tribunal of a Member State. Second, the referral should be in respect of Community law’s validity or interpretation and finally, the referring court or tribunal should determine whether at all there is a need to deliver a judgment, by the ECJ. In Bosman it was opined by the Advocate General Lenz that the ECJ can refuse to consider a preliminary ruling request, if such a request apparently bears no relation to the main action . The European Court of Justice is an autonomous body that is independent of any Member State or institution of the European Union. The major function of the ECJ is to interpret the Community Treaties and Community law in accordance with the spirit of the EU, and to implement the EC law, throughout the EU. Therefore, the ECJ shoulders the responsibility of uniformly applying the EC law in all Member States. It constitutes the judicial pillar of the EU . While hearing cases, if a conflict arises between the national legislation and the EC law, with regard to the application of the Community law; the national courts should not declare the EC law to be inapplicable. It is the duty of the ECJ to resolve such situations through its case law. Article 234 EC contains the procedure to be adopted when national courts refer cases to the ECJ for a preliminary ruling. A wide range of jurisdictional requirements have to be met by the ECJ in order to give a preliminary ruling. However, the ECJ can refuse to entertain a preliminary reference if it is satisfied that Community law is not invoked in these referred cases . In the Meilicke case, the issue was the right of shareholders to obtain information from the company management, as per the provisions of Directive 77/91/EEC. The Directive requires certain safeguards to be implemented by the Member States, so as to protect the interests of shareholders and others. The Member States have to act in accordance with the second paragraph of Article 58 of the EC Treaty. The national court referred the case to the ECJ on the compatibility of the German Aktiengesetz with the Directive with regard to the process of forming public limited liability companies, their maintenance and changes in their share capital . The national court was required to interpret these safeguards in accordance with the Second Directive. The ECJ keenly looked into the facts of the case. Its objective was to determine whether the German legislation, in the context of treating certain cash contribution preceded or followed by the company’s transactions of payment of amounts to shareholders, so as to offset the debts of the company to the shareholders or subscribers, violated Community law. The national court had held that Community law had been violated, because these amounts had been in the form of disguised contributions in kind . However, the ECJ refused to respond to the referral, as it felt that it would be exceeding the scope of its jurisdiction . The underlying principle involved is that the national courts have to refer novel and subtle questions, regarding the application and interpretation of EC law, while making a reference for a preliminary ruling. Subsequently, the ECJ would develop new case law, which would serve as a guideline to national judges and other legal professionals in the EU. National courts are expected to develop a pan European perspective and thereby contribute to the integrity of the Union. As such the ECJ does not compel the national courts to refer cases for a preliminary hearing. Though, the ECJ cannot force national courts to submit cases for preliminary reference, Article 234 EC imposes such a requirement in some cases. In some other cases it requires national courts to directly refer the cases to the ECJ by suspending the cases in the first instance itself . Article 234 EC differentiates between lower courts and national courts of last instance. The lower national courts have discretion, whether to make a reference or not. The national courts of last instance are obliged to refer cases for preliminary reference, if the interpretation of Community law was such that referral was warranted. Most of these cases originate in the lower national courts. Hence, they possess the discretion to refer the cases to the ECJ. The courts of last instance are under an obligation to make such a reference, however, they possess some discretion in this matter and this has been specified in Article 7 EC . If a national judge has to deal with cases in which the validity and applicability of the EC law is challenged, or if the application of EC law is argued to be illegal; then the national judge is under an obligation to make a referral to the ECJ for a preliminary reference. However, national judges are not competent to declare EC law invalid or unlawful. This is because, if a provision of EC law were to be declared as unlawful, then its application would have to be declared invalid in the entire EU. Therefore, it is unacceptable to declare a provision of the EC law invalid in a particular Member State; while it is valid in other Member States, without any dispute or conflict with national legislation . In the Foto – Frost case, the ECJ held that the national courts are under an obligation to refer questions regarding the applicability and validity of EC law to it. The ECJ held that national courts could only consider the applicability and legality of Community legislation. A national court cannot declare that a piece of Community legislation is invalid. Hence it only the ECJ that can invalidate Community legislation or an act of an EC institution . In Gaston Schul Douane-expediteur and International Air Transport Association the ECJ reiterated that the national courts were under an obligation to seek a preliminary reference from it. In Gaston, ECJ ignored the subject matter of the case and only considered the preliminary reference made by the national court. Afterwards, the ECJ held that the referral had been incorrect, because in an earlier decision on a similar subject, it had given the same decision, due to the fact that a specific piece of EU legislation would be declared invalid. Question 2 [a] The Employment Tribunals are competent to refer cases, under Article 234 EC, to the ECJ, whenever a clarification is needed regarding an EC Directive. This is exemplified by Coleman . In this case it was held that the ET was well within its powers to make a referral to the ECJ. This is provided for in Rule 58 of the ET Rules of Procedure 2004. Question 2[b] A disciplinary committee is neither a court nor a tribunal. Therefore, it is precluded from referring to the ECJ for a preliminary hearing. Moreover, a disciplinary committee, though a quasi – judicial body, is all the same dependent on the administrator; hence, the   ECJ will not accept a preliminary hearing referral from it. This is on the basis of the ruling in Corbiau . Question 2 [c] The Appellate Court had deemed the issue to be irrelevant and unarguable and consequently, unfit to be referred to even the House of Lords. Therefore, the issue is definitely not to be referred to the ECJ.   In the Max Mara Fashion Group case, no questions had been submitted for a reference. Further the case was so ambiguous that the ECJ refused to have anything to do with it. It was also unclear as to why the case had been sent for reference and there were no provisions of EC law that had been violated . Question 2 [d] The House of Lords need not refer to the ECJ, because it is fully convinced that it has comprehended the piece of legislation under consideration. Since, there is no breach of EC law by the national law, nor is there any difficulty in interpreting EC law, there is no necessity to approach the ECJ for a preliminary reference. Question 2 [e] In the Nolle case, the ECJ held that a referral would not be entertained, if its purpose was only restricted to fact finding . As such the ECJ requires a verification of all the facts before filing a reference with it. Moreover, the Home Office is not a judicial body. Therefore, the Home Office cannot refer to the ECJ, in order to ascertain whether the Iranian student is to be deported or not. Bibliography Case 314/85, Foto-Frost v Hauptzollamt Là ¼beck-Ost (1987) . Case C – 16/90 Nolle v. Hauptzollamp Bremen – Freihafen (1991) ECR I – 5163. Case C-83/91, Wienard Meilicke v ADV/ORGA FA Meyer AG, [1992] ECR I-4871. Case C – 24/92, Corbiau v. Administration des Contributions, (1993) ECR I – 1277. Case C-307/95 Max Mara Fashion Group (1995) ECR I-5083. C – 415/93 Bosman v UEFA (1995) ECR I – 4921. Case C-461/03, Gaston Schul Douane-expediteur BV v Minister van Landbouw, Natuur en Voedselkwaliteit, (2005). Case C-344/04, R (International Air Transport Association and European Low Fares Airline Association) v Department for Transport, (2006). C – 303/06, S. Coleman v. Attridge Law, Steve Law, (2006). The Relation Between National Courts and the European Court of Justice in the European Union Judicial System: Preliminary Ruling Regimes According to Articles 234 EC, 68 EC, and 35 EU. February 2007. 3 February 2008.